How to argue like a Greek philosopher

I recently read a book by the Presidential speechwriter Jeff Nussbaum called Undelivered: The Never-Heard Speeches That Would Have Rewritten History (a gift from one of our daughters that has been sitting on my nightstand for a few months - remember tsundoku!).  I really enjoyed it!  Nussbaum collected several speeches through the course of American history that, for one reason or another, were never delivered (for example, Richard Nixon's speech announcing that he was not going to resign as U.S. President or Hillary Clinton's victory speech following the 2016 Presidential election).  These speeches, written but never made, not only tell us a little bit about our past, but they also inform our present.  Nussbaum also provides some insight into the craft of speechwriting.  It's well worth a read!

One of the speechwriting techniques that Nussbaum reveals has its origins in ancient Greek philosophy.  The philosopher Aristotle wrote a text around the 4th century BCE called Rhetoric, which has become the definitive text on the art of rhetoric.  The word "rhetoric" is defined as the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, and Aristotle is often credited with developing the art of persuasion or argument.  He writes:

"There are, then, these three means of effecting persuasion.  The man who is to be in command of them must, it is clear, be able (1) to reason logically, (2) to understand human character and goodness in their various forms, and (3) to understand the emotions - that is, to name them and describe them, to know their causes and the way in which they are excited."

These three means of persuasion are commonly referred to as logos, ethos, and pathos.

Logos (logic) is about making a logical or reasoned argument to make a point.  Aristotle suggested that the most effective use of logic is to encourage the audience to reach the conclusion to your argument on their own!  He also recommended using what is called a syllogism, a way of combining two premises and drawing a new conclusion that logically follows from them:

(1) All men are mortal.  (2) Socrates is a man.  Therefore, (3) Socrates is mortal.

An example of an appeal to logos is to use facts, data, or statistics to make an argument (used in a campaign to stop texting and driving): "According to the Federal Highway Commission, 40% of all traffic accidents occur while people are texting while driving."

Ethos (ethics) is about establishing your credibility or authority to speak on the subject at hand.  The speaker or writer should cite authorities or experts on the subject (or provide the credentials that establish that he or she is an expert, so-called first-person authority).  It is the verbal or written equivalent of all the diplomas that physicians hang on their walls in their offices or clinic. 

An example of an appeal to ethos would be (when used to encourage people to spay or neuter their dogs and cats): "My name is Dr. Joe Brown, and I am an veterinarian with over 20 years of experience.  Please spay or neuter your pets."

Pathos (emotion) is about using emotion to sway the audience.  The most important point here is that you have to know your audience beforehand to be able to predict their emotional response.  Speakers and writers use pathos when they try to "tug on the heartstrings" of their audience.

An example of an appeal to pathos would be (when used to encourage people not to litter) would be the famous commercial from 1970 in which a Native American cries when he sees all the trash on the side of a road (see the link here).

Aristotle recommends appealing to all three together.  For example, if your daughter is trying to sell Girl Scout cookies, the best chance of success would be to have her wear her uniform (ethos) and tell prospective buyers:

"You should buy some Girl Scout cookies, because they are really delicious!  I love the Thin Mints!" (logos).  "And besides, you will be supporting us Girl Scouts so that we can go to camp this year and have a really great time!" (pathos).

I've heard about Aristotle's framework before, but I really enjoyed reading about how Jeff Nussbaum used (and still uses) it in his speechwriting.  The framework has certainly stood the test of time!